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Volume 3: A blow of destiny, the king appears Chapter 32: Nebula Hypothesis, Pure Reason and Critical Anthropology

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    Kant's life can be divided into an early period and a later period. In the early period, he mainly studied natural science, and in the later period, he mainly studied philosophy.

    The main early results include the "General History of Nature and Celestialism" published in 1755, which proposed the nebular hypothesis of the origin of the solar system.

    In the later nine years starting from 1781, Kant published a series of great and original works covering a wide range of fields, which brought a revolution to the philosophical thought of the time. They included "Critique of Pure Reason", "Practice"  Critique of Reason' and 'Critique of Judgment'.

    The publication of the Three Critiques marked the completion of Kant¡¯s philosophical system.  The three major criticisms explore epistemology, ethics and aesthetics respectively.

    Politically speaking, Kant was a liberal. He supported the French Revolution and the republican government. In 1795, he also published "On Perpetual Peace", proposing the idea of ??a parliamentary government and a world federation.

    The last representative work during his lifetime was "Anthropology", which is generally considered to be a summary and summary of his entire theory.

    In his later years, Kant was already well-known as an outstanding philosopher.  Kant never married.

    Kant¡¯s philosophy covers a wide range of topics, from aesthetics to ethics to metaphysics.  Its doctrine refers to the research methods of modern natural science, emphasizes experiment plus mathematics, the combination of experience and reason, criticizes the old metaphysics that rationalism insists on and does not combine with experience, and criticizes empiricism that denies inevitable truth.

    In the preface to the first edition of "Critique of Pure Reason", Kant clarified that the necessity of criticizing reason lies first in determining whether general metaphysics is possible or impossible, and in defining its origin, scope and limits.

    But in the preface to the second edition, Kant did not focus on the conditions for rational criticism, but changed the relationship between knowledge and objects: not knowledge according to objects, but objects according to knowledge, this new concept.  This led Kant to launch a Copernican revolution in philosophy.

    In the introduction, Kant put forward the general outline of the book: the general task of pure reason is to solve the problem of how true scientific knowledge is possible that is universal and inevitable, that is, a priori comprehensive judgment, and that expands the content of knowledge.  The question is broken down into the following four questions:

    How is it possible in mathematics?  How is natural science possible?  How is metaphysics possible as a natural tendency?  How is metaphysics possible as a science?

    The whole book is roughly divided into five parts: 1. Transcendental Perceptualism, 2. Transcendental Logic, 3. Transcendental Analysis, 4. Transcendental Dialectics, 5. Transcendental Methodology

    Transcendental perceptualism mainly clarifies that only by sorting out the sensory data that stimulate the senses of things in themselves (the representation of the phenomenal world) through the intuitive form that is innate to the human perceptual knowledge (the ability to accept perceptual knowledge), that is, space and time, can we obtain  Certainty of perceptual knowledge.  At the same time, space and time are also innate intuitive forms of mathematical knowledge.

    The theory of transcendental logic clarifies that sensibility must be combined with understanding, and intuition must be combined with thinking to produce knowledge of natural science. Therefore, there must be a transcendental logic different from formal logic to explore the structure of intelligence and its application to empirical objects.  Various principles.

    ?? Transcendental logic is based on the relationship between knowledge and objects.  That is, the content of knowledge, rather than a simple form of thinking, which marks the germination of dialectical logic in modern times.

    The theory of transcendental analysis (the logic of truth) clarifies that innate concepts and innate principles of intelligence are the basis and conditions for the possibility of natural science.

    In the concept analysis theory, through the analysis of the logical function in intellectual judgment.  The theory of principle analysis in the transcendental analysis mainly clarifies the rules for the application of categories to phenomena by the understanding and guidance of judgment.

    Transcendental dialectics (the logic of illusion) mainly clarifies that reason inevitably transcends phenomena to understand entities. The resulting metaphysics as a natural tendency is just some transcendental illusions and cannot be the real reality.  science.

    Kant pointed out in the introduction to Transcendental Dialectics that the generalization ability of reason requires starting from the conditioned to understand the unconditional through inference.

    The transcendental methodology is first explained.  Although there are correct regulations for the empirical use of pure reason (the principle of prioritization of intelligence), there are no regulations for its theoretical (speculative, transcendental) use. Therefore, its transcendental use must be based on the definition.  Dogmatism, skepticism methods of arguing from pros and cons and falsifying each other, and methods of hypothesis and proof) are trained to establish some negative rules.  To limit the tendency of pure reason to expand beyond possible experience, thereby preparing methodological principles for establishing a metaphysics about experience.

    "Essentials of the Theory of Knowledge and Others" Although Kant used critical philosophy, others established a complete philosophical theory.

    In Kant¡¯s time.  There are two main important theories in European philosophical thought: economic theory developed by John, Locke, David, Hume and others.??ism, and the rationalism of Descartes and others.

    Empiricists believe that human understanding and knowledge of the world come from human experience.  Rationalists believe that human knowledge comes from people's own reason.

    Kant combined the two views to a certain extent.  Kant believed that knowledge is obtained by human beings through both senses and reason.

    Experience is necessary for the generation of knowledge, but it is not the only element.  Converting experience into knowledge requires rationality (Kant, like Aristotle, calls this rationality categories), and rationality is innate.

    Human beings gain experience of the outside world through the framework of categories. Without categories, it is impossible to perceive the world.  Categories, like experience, are therefore necessary for the acquisition of knowledge.

    But there are also some factors in the human category that can change human beings' concepts of the world. He realized that things are different from what people see, and people can never know the true appearance of things.

    In Kant¡¯s view, time and space are two innate and special concepts.  In "Critique of Pure Reason", Kant pointed out that no one can imagine an object existing in a world without time and space. Therefore, he emphasized that without time and space, experience is impossible, and these two precede all experience.  .

    In addition, Kant also believed that experience must come from outside the mind.  In other words, a person can perceive and understand the world around him, but he can never perceive and understand himself, because the generation of knowledge requires three elements: time, space and category.

    In terms of the law of cause and effect, Kant also overturned Hume's view.  Hume believed that the law of causality does not exist, and that humans only believe that there is a connection between two phenomena due to habit.

    In other words, we can only perceive the movement of the white ball and the black ball, but we cannot perceive the cause of the white ball causing the black ball to move.

    It is precisely because we cannot perceive the law of cause and effect that Hume believes that we cannot prove the existence of the law of cause and effect.  However, Kant believed that the law of causality is the result of human reason. Kant agreed with Hume that the law of causality does not come from experience, but he believed that the laws of nature could be proved, because the laws of nature are the laws of human cognition.  The law of cause and effect is actually a manifestation of human rationality.

    On religious issues, Kant admitted that neither experience nor reason could prove the existence of God.  But he believed that for the sake of morality we must assume the existence of God and the soul.

    He calls these beliefs a practical hypothesis, an assumption that cannot be proven but that must be true for the sake of practice.

    In terms of ethics, the philosophical essentials of "Critique of Practical Reason", Kant denies that the will is controlled by external factors, but believes that the will legislates for itself, and that human beings' ability to distinguish right from wrong is innate rather than acquired.

    This set of natural laws is a supreme command that applies to all situations and is a universal moral principle.  Kant believes that true moral behavior is behavior done purely based on obligation, and doing things to achieve a certain personal utilitarian purpose cannot be considered a moral behavior.

    Therefore, Kant believes that whether an action is moral or not depends not on the consequences of the action, but on the motivation for taking the action.

    We are free only when we abide by moral laws, because we abide by the moral rules we have set ourselves, and if we do it just because we want to do it, there is no freedom at all, because you become the master of all kinds of things.  slave.

    Its theory uses its own statement to mainly answer four questions: What can I know?  What should I do?  What do I hope for?  What is a person?
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