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Volume 3: A blow of destiny, the king appears Chapter 86: Research on various specific functions of human beings

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    Chance and spontaneity are both reasons why things change.  Opportunity is an unexpected cause of change in something, and it comes from spontaneity (but it should be noted that spontaneity does not come from chance).

    ??More clearly, what Aristotle calls chance is like what is commonly known as coincidence.  A person takes certain actions to achieve a certain goal, but he may also (unintentionally) change other things.  For example, a person trying to solicit donations may find another person who is willing to donate a certain amount of money.

    But if the fundraiser does not really carry out the fundraising operation to collect money, but has other goals, then Aristotle would classify the money brought to his people as the result of chance.  .

    Things that happen because of chance are not common. In other words, if something happens often or always, then we cannot classify it as an opportunity.

    However, opportunity can only be used for humans, and it belongs to the realm of moral behavior.  According to Aristotle, opportunity must contain elements of human decision-making (and therefore thinking), and only humans have the means to think and make decisions. Things without the ability to act do not have the ability to obtain opportunities.

    Aristotle defines metaphysics as the knowledge of immaterial existence or the highest degree of abstract existence.  He called metaphysics and theology together the first philosophy.

    Aristotle examined the concept of substance in his Metaphysics. He pointed out that the substance of a given thing comes from the combination of form and matter.

    In Volume 8, he concluded that the material of an entity comes from the structure or material that makes it up. For example, the materials that make up a house are bricks, stones, wood, etc.  Or any material that might be used to construct a house.

    ¡°Form refers to a real house, that is, a building that can be used to cover the body and belongings.  Or anything else with the same meaning.  The components that make up the house are the material part, while the house itself is the formal part.

    Considering the change of things and the relationship between their causes, Aristotle divided the types of changes into: growth or shrinkage, changes and movements related to quantity, changes and changes related to space, and changes in overall quality.  In conjunction with the assumptions of form and quality, Aristotle here proposes the concepts of potentiality and actuality.

    The so-called potential refers to the change that a specific thing has the ability to achieve, assuming it is not blocked by any external force.  For example.  A seed buried in the soil of a field is a potential crop. Assuming it is not disturbed by other things, it will successfully produce crops.

    Potential things can act or be acted upon, and their potential can also be innate, or achieved through action or learning.  For example, eyes carry the potential to see (innate, acted upon), while the ability to play the flute is learned (practiced, acted upon).

    The so-called reality refers to the results after the potential is exerted, and the results are the basic principle of change in all things.  Potentiality also exists in order to achieve results, so actuality itself is the result.  Going back to the field example above, the reality of the crops that come from the seeds is flowering and bearing fruit.

    In short, the material of a house is its potentiality, while the form of a house is its actuality.  It is the reason of the house builder that proposes the formal cause of the house plan and constructs the potential into a real house, and the completed house itself is the end of the cause relationship - the final cause.

    Aristotle concluded that actuality exists earlier than potentiality in formula.  This is true both temporally and physically.

    After defining specific entities (form and matter), Aristotle tried to study the question of why things are made: for example, what makes a human being?

    If we follow Platonic concepts, this question will only get two answers: animals and two feet, but this does not make people one.

    However, according to Aristotle's concept, potential things (matter) and actual things (form) are actually the same thing.  The two are one.

    Aristotle¡¯s teacher Plato argued that all things have a universal form, which can either be a property.  Or a relationship to something else.

    For example, when we look at an apple, we see an apple, and we can also analyze the form of an apple.

    In this distinction there is a particular apple and a universal form of apple.  In addition, we can place an apple next to a book, then we can say that the book and the apple are close to each other.

    Plato argued that there are certain universal forms that are not part of particular things.  For example?It is possible that there are no special cases of good people, but the good person is still a truly universal form.  Bertrand and Russell are contemporary philosophers who favor Plato's unexampled universals.

    Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this issue, arguing that all universals have examples.  Aristotle argued that there is no universal that cannot be related to existing things.

    According to Aristotle, if the universal exists, either as a particular or as a relation, then there must be something in the past, present, or future that can be asserted as this universal.

    As a conclusion, following Aristotle, if a universal cannot be said to exist as an object at a certain time, then it does not exist.

    Furthermore, Aristotle disagrees with Plato on the position of the universal.  Because Plato spoke of the world of Forms, which is the location where all forms exist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist in everything that is presumed to be a universal.  So following Aristotle, the form of the apple exists within each apple, not within the world of forms.

    Although many of Aristotle's works discuss ethics, the most important work in this area is Nicomachean Ethics, which is also considered Aristotle's greatest work.  one.

    Aristotle believed that ethical knowledge is not precise knowledge, and ethics is therefore very different from logic or mathematics, but common sense, similar to knowledge about nutrition and exercise.

    Furthermore, because ethics is a practical subject rather than just a theoretical one, Aristotle believed that if a person wants to be a good person, he cannot just study what virtue is, but must practice virtue himself.

    For example, if a person wants to become a good football player, he cannot just rely on studying theory, but must put it into practical practice.  Aristotle first proposed the standard of virtue. He first assumed that any human behavior has goals and these goals are good.  The ultimate goal, which he calls the highest good, is happiness (the Greek word is eudaimonia, which can sometimes be translated as living well).

    Aristotle argued that happiness cannot be obtained solely by happiness, or by pure fame and honor.  After studying various specific human functions, Aristotle finally identified what he believed to be the source of happiness.

    He analyzed the human mind and divided it into three parts: the nutritional mind (including crops, fields, and humans), the perceptual mind (animals and humans), and the rational mind (only humans).

    Therefore, the function of a human being is to do what humans should do, to do those things that make humans special: the ability to use reason.  Human beings who do such things are happy because they achieve the goal or essence of a rational mind.  Aristotle divided human beings into four classes, depending on their pursuit of rationality: the moral, the self-controlled, the uncontrolled, and the wicked.  (To be continued.)
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