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Volume 3: A blow of destiny, the king appears Chapter 85: Cognition of invisible things

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    Aristotle's practicality meant ethics and politics-that is, politics, while imaginable science meant the study of poetry and other fine arts, and theoreticality meant physics, mathematics, and metaphysics.  Research.

    Regarding metaphysics and philosophy, Aristotle defined it as the cognition of invisible things, and called it first philosophy, theoretical science, or things at the highest level of abstraction.

    Logic (or analysis) is regarded by Aristotle as the basic stage of learning philosophy. Therefore, Aristotle¡¯s philosophy can be divided into:

    Theoretical science (mathematics, natural science and the first philosophy later called metaphysics)

    The practical sciences (ethics, politics, economics, strategy and rhetoric)

    The science of creation is poetics.

    The most correct translation of Aristotle's "Physics" is "Natural Philosophy". The physics he taught is different from the current physics. The book is a philosophical work, but it is not like "Metaphysics"  Generally pure philosophical works, but natural philosophy that studies natural phenomena.

    It includes some contents of today¡¯s physics, as well as chemistry, biology, astronomy, earth science, etc.  This book studies the general principles of nature and the general laws of movement and change in the material world.  This method and idea of ??elevating phenomena to a philosophical level, that is, extracting common characteristics from things, is epoch-making.

    The concept of logic proposed by Aristotle became the theory that dominated the field of logic. It was not replaced by mathematical logic until the 19th century.

    Kant pointed out in "Critique of Pure Reason" that Aristotle's logical theory is completely structured in the form of deductive reasoning.

    Aristotle claimed that before him, no one had seriously studied the field of logic.  but.  Plato once revealed that before Aristotle, people had begun to study grammar and explore the logic of the use of words.

    Logic seems to be derived from dialectics.  Earlier philosophers have used the concept of proof by contradiction to discuss philosophy, but they have never seriously explored its logical significance.

    Even Plato had obstacles in logical research. Although he had a general understanding of how to construct a system of deductive reasoning, he never really devoted himself to the construction.

    Plato relied solely on his method of proof by contradiction, mixing together different scientific and research methods.  Plato believed that logical deduction was only derived from hypotheses, so he only focused on proposing clear and correct hypotheses, thinking that this would lead to correct conclusions.

    It was later that Plato realized that the process of deduction might go a long way toward reaching conclusions, but he never successfully investigated it in this way.  Although he once recorded his experimental experience and research methods in "The Wisdom Chapter".

    The logical theory proposed by Aristotle is often called Aristotelian logic in modern times, but Aristotle himself called it analysis. At that time, the word logic only represented the traditional method of proof by contradiction.

    Many of Aristotle's writings may have been revised by later generations, especially by his students and later teachers.  The logical theory proposed by Aristotle was compiled and published in six books in the 1st century: Theory of Categories, Theory of Interpretation, Part 1 of Analysis, Part 2 of Analysis, Thesis, and Argument from Fallacies.

    Aristotle also created the syllogism through the modalities of logic (modal logic).

    The word modal means model, and what modal logic studies is the model of truth.

    Aristotle also proposed the concept of difference between possible and necessary research hypotheses, and constructed a set of logical research methods to explore truths that are difficult to interpret.

    Aristotle believed that there is no void separate from matter and no void within objects.  The world is made up of five elements: Earth: cold and dry.  Corresponds to the modern solid concept.  Water: cold and wet, corresponding to the modern concept of liquid.  Fire: hot and dry, corresponding to the modern concept of heat.  Air: Hot and humid, corresponding to the modern concept of gas.  Ether: The sacred substance that makes up the celestial sphere and celestial bodies (stars and planets).

    Each of the four elements on Earth has its natural place; Earth is the center of the universe, followed by water, air, and then fire.

    These elements will also move naturally without any external power.  Therefore, the human body will sink into the water, the water will evaporate with the air, the evaporated water vapor will fall with the rain, and fire can burn in the air.  These elements have a perpetual cycle of movement.

    Aristotle believed that there is a causal relationship in nature.  This concept of cause is different from the concept of cause and effect in modern times. The cause corresponds to the why and does not correspond to the result.

    They are the final cause, material cause, dynamic cause and formal cause.

    Material cause represents a thing from a bunch of parts,A component, base, or form of existence composed of raw materials traces the composition of matter back to its parts (elements, ingredients), then forming a complete (system, architecture, mixture, synthesis, compound, or combination).  For example.  The raw materials such as marble that form a marble statue are material causes.

    Formal cause can tell us what kind of definition, form, shape, essence, synthesis, or prototype a thing is composed of, and it explains the basic principles or laws that constitute a thing.  This is just one part (the macrostructure) of the whole thing (the whole set of causal relationships).  For example, a draft or plan for sculpting a marble statue is its formal cause.

    Efficient cause refers to the motivation and cause of changing things. It studies what changes something and what causes this change. The scope includes the media between all things, including living or inanimate, the origin or origin of power.  It is something that is changed.  For example, the artist who carves marble into a statue is an efficient cause.

    The final cause refers to the reason for the existence of a thing or the reason for its change, including purposeful actions and activities.  The final cause of a thing is the reason why it exists, or the reason why it changes.  This also explains the so-called psychological motivations in modern times, including will, needs, motives, rationality, irrationality, and ethics, all of which are the sources of creative behavior.  For example, a finished marble statue is the artist's final cause (teleology).

    In addition, things can influence each other and cause changes in results. For example, hard work can lead to a better life, or vice versa. Although they do not have the same cause process or function, one thing is the beginning of a whole set of causal relationships.  , and the other thing is the result.

    Aristotle initially proposed a set of interactive or cyclic cause relationships to explain the impact of interactions between things on each other.  However, Aristotle also pointed out that the same thing can be used to produce opposite results, and the presence or absence of a thing in a causal relationship can also affect the result.

    Aristotle pointed out two models of cause relationships: traditional (existing) cause relationships, and unexpected (changed) cause relationships.

    This can also be applied to the effects of cause relationships. General effects can be classified as general causes, specific effects can be classified as specific causes, and the effects of actions can be classified as actual causes.

    In essence, the causal relationship does not mean that there must be a temporal interaction between the cause and the result.

    Further research on the relationship between causes divides various causes into appropriate levels, such as purpose greater than power greater than matter greater than form (Thomas Aquinas), or restricts all cause relationships to the interaction between material and dynamic causes, or  Is it only dynamic causes (determinism or chance), or is it limited to a series and a series of interactions of natural phenomena (natural science explains how things happen, not why they happen and what happens after they happen).  (To be continued.)
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